Indian political society

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Indian political society is the historiographical name of the political body and social body that was constituted in the Spanish America. Such political society was made up of ethnic groups and diverse cultural, initially two: "Spanish" and "Indians" (Indigenous peoples of the Americas); although over time intermediate (mestizos) and new categories were added (the addition of the blacks and the division of the Spaniards

La sociedad política India surgió bajo dos presupuestos: era una entidad político-social dentro de la unidad monárquica, por su vinculación a la Corona española, pero que conservaba su identidad dentro de la macroestructura política, ya que se trataba de una entidad compleja, dada la existencia de dos comunidades políticas en su interior, denominadas "repúblicas" —la "república de españoles" y la "república de indios"—,^[1] without such a name implying any "republican" condition, but alludes to the Latin expression res publica (understood as "public thing", "common good", society or State).^[2]

The Spanish doctrine of the time assumed that the State or political community was made up of two elements: king and kingdom (the crown and the people or the community), which also moved to America, although it had to adapt to given circumstances.

Features

The system was structured on the basis that the two populations of America, the Spanish (whether peninsular or Creole) and the indigenous, were considered different in their characteristics but were equally subject to the spiritual authority of the Catholic Church and under political dependence on the Crown.

It was based on the racial identity of each person, a formula that was simple at the beginning of the colonizing process, when the boundary between both societies was clear, but that became blurred with the subsequent racial mixtures between whites , Indians and blacks brought from Africa.

In this way, with respect to America, the monarch ruled, on the one hand, over the "republic of Spaniards" and, on the other, over the "republic of the Indians." Both communities had different legal statutes.

Republic of Spaniards

The republic of Spaniards was the society or political community made up of Spaniards (born in Spain or in America) during the Spanish Empire in America from the 15th to the 19th centuries. Its legal status was different from that applied to the "naturals" of the conquered lands, the so-called "republic of Indians", and at the same time different from that applied to the inhabitants of the metropolis, due to the special characteristics presented by the Indians.

The Spanish possessions in America were legally organized based on Castilian law, but they formed an autonomous political unit within the Spanish Empire. This autonomy and heterogeneity ended abruptly when the dynasty of the Austrias ended and that of the Bourbons began, who carried out a homogenizing attempt to equalize the aedyllic and political systems of all the components of the empire.

The Spanish Republic consisted of the legal, but also economic, social and geographical separation between the incipient Spanish societies in America, privileged by the Crown, and the indigenous pre-Hispanic.

Ethnic and social composition

The population of the Spanish republics was very culturally homogeneous compared to the hundreds of ethnic groups with different languages that made up the "republic of Indians", but socially it was at least as heterogeneous as that: the Spanish population included large landowners, aristocrats, encomenderos, state officials, merchants, artisans and miners, since they did not suffer the professional restrictions applied to indigenous people.

Most of the Spaniards came from the southern Castilian kingdoms: Extremadura, Andalusia and also Castile, so they all spoke the same language. They also professed, at least officially, the same religion, since the discovery the Crown tried to veto the emigration to America of Protestants, Jews or Muslims, which did not prevent, however, many new Christians (Judeoconversos and their descendants) from escaping religious repression in Spain by emigrating to the new lands.

From very early dates, the category of "Spaniards" was divided between the peninsulares (born in the Iberian Peninsula, locally called "gachupines" or "chapetones", in a derogatory way), and the criollos. (born in America). The reservation for the first of the most important public positions in the colonial administration meant for them a clear privileged condition and quickly provoked rivalry between both groups, which would ultimately lead to the claim of independence by the Creoles (Bolívar, San Martín, Hidalgo, Sucre, etc.). However, in the independence process there were both Creoles and peninsulars on both sides (royalists and insurgents).

Republic of Indians

The "republic of Indians" was the indigenous political society or community formed by the "Indians" or "naturals" (indigenous Americans or Amerindians, in current terminology). They were subjected by the Crown to a protection regime, being marginalized from general political activities to be under the tutelage of the Spanish clergy. In principle, their uses and customs should be respected (including their laws by Customary Law), to the extent that they were not against the Catholic religion and Spanish laws.

The membership of the so-called mestizos to the republic of the so-called mestizos was only to a certain degree. Discriminated by both Spaniards and Indians for not having "pureness of blood", the mestizos had a problematic insertion into society during the period before independence, occupying minor and marginalized positions and trades (servants, peasants, soldiers - which was forbidden to the indigenous people - or artisans).

The largest sector of the Republic of Indians was the ordinary indigenous population (of the station of the Pall People), which supported the viceregal tributary apparatus with its Taxes (indigenous tax), while the smallest sector was made up of the indigenous nobility, which held almost all public office. Initially, Spaniards, Creoles, mestizos and blacks were not allowed to be part of this Republic, although this changed over the years since in practice those groups became important labor pillars of the system. The same thing happened with the Indians in the Republic of Spaniards.^[3]

The numerical impossibility of governing the immense conquered territories, the method of "conquest" and the need for its evangelization were the direct origin of the "republic of Indians." It was then chosen to replace the domes of the pre-Hispanic structures by the Crown and the Church, and the new institutions that were created.

Legal status

In most cases, indigenous communities had been subject to larger political entities, such as the Aztec Empire, the Inca Empire, the city-states Mayans or chibchas or the Purepechas kingdoms. Once these entities were conquered in the name of the Spanish Crown, their vassals and subjects also became its subjects.

In cases in which there was no established central power, such as among the Mapuche people, individual arrangements were sought with local chiefs: the king recognized their titles and "granted" certain privileges, etc., to exchange of obtaining rights and recognition of their sovereignty.

In practice, this meant that in many cases the pre-Hispanic power structures were maintained, with the maintenance of the indigenous aristocracy, their caciques or the creation of their own cabildos or independent government councils (Mayor of Indians). However, if the interests of the Spanish or the Crown required it, the Indians were subject to their authority, as for example, in the encomiendas or mitas.^[4]^[5]

The evolution of colonial society determined, however, that indigenous communities, later incorporated into capitalist economic system, lost population and resources to become economically dependent on Spaniards and mestizos.

The legal differences between Indians and Spaniards extended to all their rights and obligations. The indigenous peoples, for example, were not subject to the jurisdiction of the Inquisition, because it was understood that their recent incorporation into Christianity made them the subject of a particular collective naivety; On the other hand, they were subject to harsh personal and collective taxes in money, products or work (especially at the beginning of the colony, the Indians were forced to "repay" with work the obligation of the colonizers for their evangelization -the encomienda or mita-, which did not apply to other races that were supposed to have already been evangelized).

Doctrine and tutelage

Doctrine priests: Clergyman Spanish who had the duty of imparting Catholic doctrine to the Indians for their correct evangelization, in turn, was in charge of supervising and organizing the Christian rites and how they were practiced by society. They could collect the tithes, administer the lands that the Catholic Church had in the jurisdiction and punish the Indians if they went against the Christian-Catholic religion (that included the nobles and chiefs). Since the end of the 17th century, Indians and mestizos have been allowed to access this function.
Protector of Indians: Jurist Spanish who had the duty to protect and ensure the well-being of the Indians as a guardian, because the Indians were considered "minors." Likewise, he was in charge of intervening in the judicial processes that they had. He sent reports directly to the General Protector of Indians, to the Viceroy, to the King and to the Council of the Indies. Since the 17th century, it was possible for Indians and mestizos to access this function.

Political organization

Governor: In charge of political and judicial administration in a municipality of Indians. To comply with the judicial ordinances issued by the corregidores. He supervised the caciques and mayors. He was elected by the Corregidor during the House of Austria, until he was replaced by the Intendant during the Bourbon Reforms.^[6]^[7]

"The hereditary cacique was also Governor in the beginning, but the rank of cacique was soon separated from the position of governor, who became an official appointed by the Spanish authorities or elected by the principals and confirmed by the viceroy. He used to be a noble Indian but without hereditary rights to the chiefdom, and sometimes he came from other communities."
— Carrasco, 1977

Cacique Principal: Maximum representative of a municipality of Indians. He was in charge of the administration of the ayllus of Indians and of representing the minor caciques. He collected the taxes collected. He was chosen by the minor caciques or represented them because they had a higher noble status. In times of war he acted as "Captain of Indians" and if he couldn't, he delegated the function to one of the minor caciques. His position was generally hereditary.^[8]
Cacique: He was in charge of the political and judicial administration in an ayllu, collected the taxes and appointed the mitayos. His position was generally hereditary.
Mayor: In charge of the judicial administration in a town of Indians. He was chosen by the Corregidor, the Principal Cacique or by the Indian people.
Stage manager: In charge of supervising the correct supply of the town and controlling the management of the internal budget.
Procurator: In charge of the judicial proceedings (territorial) of the people.
Syllor: In charge of maintaining internal order among the ayllus, as well as imparting justice (punishment) and detaining offenders. He had officers and guards under his command.
Assistant Officials
- Court or Entourage: Council of noble and notable Indians in charge of advising the chief in government affairs "and to maintain a small Court with its corresponding Counselors.
- Secretary or Camayoc: In charge of organizing the correspondence and documentation of the authority.
- Escribano or Camayoc: In charge of drafting correspondence, ordinances and all kinds of documents by mandate of the authority.
- Interpreter: Responsible for translating a language or document for the authority. As well as instructing it in languages.
War Officials
- Captain of Indians: In times of war the Chief Chief served as "Captain of Indians" and if he could not within 30 days he had to delegate the function to one of the minor chiefs.
- Officials: In charge of executing, leading and leading the troops in times of war. In general, the official was held by the caciques or nobles with military knowledge (theoretical or practical).
- Sub-officers: Intermediate commands between the officers and the troops. They led the Indian troops in the absence of officers. The rank was usually held by mestizos or ordinary Indians with military knowledge.
- Troops: Group of fighters in charge of executing the orders and dispositions of their superiors. Composed mostly of common Indians who were recruited in times of war to defend the viceregal system against possible threats.

Economic organization

Collectives

' Guild of miners: It was the main economic sector of the viceroyalty. Made up mostly of Mitayo Indians, mestizos day laborers, African slaves and controlled by a small group of Spanish businessmen. The Spanish businessmen obtained the concessions and paid for the technological implements to exploit the mine. The main minerals exploited were gold, silver, mercury and iron.^[9]
Livestock farmers and farmers: It was the second most important economic sector of the viceroyalty. Made up mostly of Indians, mestizos, African slaves and controlled mainly by the indigenous nobility, followed by the Spanish and Creole landowners. These produced fruits, vegetables, cereals, tubers and menestras. They also raised sheep, cows, cattle, horses, pigs, chickens, among other animals.
Gremials of merchants: Made up mostly by Ladino and Indian mestizos, the sector being controlled by Ladino mestizos. They were responsible for trading textiles, animals, food products and articles of all kinds.
Textile works: Made up mostly of Indians and mestizos, the sector being controlled by Spaniards. Dedicated to the manufacture of textile garments, wool, cotton, among other items.
Transporters: Made up mostly of Indians and mestizos, the sector being controlled by the indigenous nobility possessing equidae and auquenids.
Gremial of artisans and others: Made up mostly of Indians and Spaniards, the sector being controlled by Spaniards.^[10]

"This exclusivity was sought above all by those artisans who were at the top of the social organization, within its sector of course, that is, by the Spanish teachers, who tried to prevent the performance of the profession from the Indian, black, mulatto and other castes artisans. Thus, an artisanal "aristocracy" was constituted that occupied the positions of the guild and controlled the profession. The rest of the artisans perceived the association as a necessary evil that legally authorized him to exercise but that did not defend interests equal to his own."
— Fernández Villanova, 2016

Individuals

Lawyers: Mostly noble Indians, noble mestizos, Spaniards and Ladino Creoles who worked as political officials, clerics, accountants, scribes, jurists, translators, surgeons, painters, teachers, among other professions.
Illiterate: Mostly Spaniards, Creoles, mestizos and plebeian Indians who worked as barbers, shoemakers, carpenters, blacksmiths, sculptors, among other trades.
Servitude: Indian plebeians, freedmen and African slaves who serve voluntarily or compulsorily to private institutions, authorities or misservers. Receiving a small paycheck, food, accommodation or other compensation.

References

^ Díaz Rementería, Carlos (1992). "La constitución de la sociedad política". Historia del Derecho Indiano. Madrid: Editorial MAPFRE S.A. p. 167-190.
^ Levaggi, Abelardo (2001). República de indios y república de españoles en los reinos de indias^{[dead link]}. Valparaíso: Revista de Estudios Histórico-Jurídicos. Nº 21. ISSN 0716-5455.
^ Política indiana, Juan de Solórzano (1776).
^ Indigenous custom in Indian Law: 1529 - 1550, in Anuario Mexicano de Historia del Derecho 4 (Mexico, 1992)
^ Dougnac Rodríguez, Antonio, Manual de Historia del Derecho Indiano (UNAM, México, 1994)
^ Lavallé, Bernard, ed. (2019-03-08). Los virreinatos de Nueva España y del Perú (1680-1740) : Un balance historiográfico. Collection of the House of Velázquez. ISBN 978-84-9096-208-4. Retrieved 2023-12-13.
^ Lohmann Villena, Guillermo (2001). The Corregidor of Indians in Peru under the Habsburgs. Fondo Editorial PUCP. ISBN 978-9972-42-435-9. Retrieved 2023-12-13.
^ Rementería, Carlos J. Díaz (1977). The cacique in the viceroyalty of Peru: historical-legal study. University of Seville, Department of Anthropology and Ethnology of America. ISBN 978-84-7405-068-4. Retrieved 2023-12-13.
^ Huancavelica, Alhaja de la Corona, A. Reyes Flores (2004)
^ The interference of the brotherhoods of artisans in the organization of trades in colonial Lima, David Fernández Villanova (2016).